Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are living organisms whose genetic material has been artificially altered through genetic engineering. Combining genes from various organisms is called recombinant DNA technology. The result is known as genetically modified (GM). You may also see the word transgenic to describe the resulting organism.
This creates combinations of animal, plant, virus, and bacteria genes that do not occur naturally or through conventional crossbreeding methods. Most GM crops have been designed and altered to resist the application of the herbicide glyphosate (Roundup) and/or to produce their own insecticide.
However, new technologies are being used to artificially create additional traits in plants, like resistance to browning in fruit, and to develop new organisms through synthetic biology. Currently, there is no evidence that GM crops produce higher yields, are more drought-tolerant, have greater nutritional benefits, or any other consumer benefit. Thus, without credible, independent long-term studies, the safety of GM crops remains unknown. Increasingly, consumers are becoming more educated and choosing non-GMO products.
The primary concerns of GM crops are the following:
- Not enough safety testing on GMOs
- Allergic reactions to the new proteins that are produced
- Transfer of genetic modification to wild relative
- Negative health effects because of eating genetically modified organisms
- Increased pollution due to increased herbicide use
- Decrease in genetic diversity of crops and animals
- Cost
As GMO products increase in the marketplace, public interest in quality information about safety has increased as well. Most of the concerns center on how GMO crops may impact the environment or consumers. One concern is the potential for GMO crops to negatively impact human health. This may be due to an allergic response to unnatural proteins, differences in nutritional content, or issues like organ damage, toxicity, or gene transfer.
Nearly all of the most recent reviews of studies assert that the safety research data surrounding GMO crops is inadequate. Some have even suggested that certain risk assessment studies, especially those conducted by independent researchers not connected to the biotech industry, have raised safety concerns that remain unsettled by peer-reviewed research.
The most common concerns raised about GMO foods are:
- The potential for unintended effects resulting from alterations of host metabolic pathways
- Overexpression of inherently toxic or pharmacologically active substances
- Inherent toxicity of the novel gene and their products
- The potential to express novel antigenic proteins or alter levels of existing protein allergens
- Potential for nutrient composition in the new food differing significantly from a conventional counterpart.
Soil and environmental contamination
The increase of GMO crops cultivated globally has raised concerns about adverse effects on the environment. A specific example is the Bt Corn (Bacillus thuringensis Corn), which is widely known for its pest controlling ability. Bacillus thuringensis is a soil bacterium that has a gene that produces certain protein toxins that effectively destroy pests and insects, like larval caterpillars. This gene is then inserted into the corn to make it more resistant to pests.
While this trait helps control pests, the concern is that the toxin may be released into the soil. Herbicides, including glyphosate, increase diseases in plants by changing a plant’s ability to absorb nutrients from the soil. In addition, herbicides reduce soil health by killing beneficial microbes. High toxicity in the soil can restrict the growth of good bacteria that are essential for plant health.
Large-scale, commercial planting of GMO crops began in 1996. In addition to concerns about the long-term impact on environmental, health, and socio-economic issues, another concern involves the contamination of non-GMO crops by adjacent GMO crops. According to the International Journal of Food Contamination, almost 400 cases of GMO contamination occurred between 1997 and 2013 in 63 countries.
Pollination by insects, birds, or the wind is a natural phenomenon. This genetic drift can spread GMO materials to non-GMO plants. Genetic drift is impossible to prevent. And, current regulations are inadequate for holding seed companies accountable for any resulting damage. This puts the burden on the farmers who have been the victims of contamination. Concerns regarding GMO contamination of non-GM crops include loss of markets, particularly those requiring “GM-free” products; future supply of non-GM seed (especially for seed saved from open-pollinated crops), and possible introgression (spreading) of the GM trait into both wild and feral populations of crop relatives.
Superpests and superweeds
Farmers and researchers are now finding superpests and superweeds that are very difficult to manage. The emergence and spread of glyphosate-resistant weeds is the most important factor driving up herbicide use on land planted with herbicide-resistant varieties.
However, the overuse of glyphosate with seeds engineered to withstand its application has produced strains of weeds that are also resistant to the chemical. Glyphosate-resistant weeds did not exist prior to 1996. Between 1996 and 2011, U.S. herbicide use grew by 527 million pounds, mostly from glyphosate. There are now at least 14 species of glyphosate-resistant weeds throughout the country and almost double that number worldwide. The widespread use of glyphosate has essentially rendered it useless. Farmers affected by resistant pests must revert to older and more toxic chemicals and more labor or more intensive tillage, which negate the benefits of GMO technology.
Biodiversity
The cultivation of GMO crops also imposes high risks to the disruption of biodiversity. This is due to the better traits produced from engineered genes that can result in the favoring of one organism. The introduction of GMO crops can eventually disrupt the natural process of gene flow. Not only is the biodiversity of plants at risk, but beneficial insect populations are being destroyed and watersheds are being polluted.
The most famous event that shows the importance of genetic diversity in agriculture is the great Irish potato famine. In the 19th century, Ireland depended on the “lumper” potato almost exclusively. When a blight spread rapidly through the country, it devastated the crops, the economy, and the Irish population.
We should take the lessons from the great Irish potato famine very seriously. The prevalence of GMOs in major field crops threatens the genetic diversity of our food supply. Genetic diversity helps ensure that individual specials can adapt to new environmental conditions, pests, and diseases. This diversity also helps species adapt to severe conditions like floods or droughts.
Seeds patents
For thousands of years, farmers have saved seeds from one farming season to another. But when Monsanto developed GMO seeds that would resist its herbicide glyphosate-based Roundup, the company applied for patents on the seed. For all of its history prior to this, the United States Patent and Trademark Office refused to grant patents on seeds, viewing them as lifeforms with too many variables to be patented.
In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court allowed for seed patents in a 5-4 decision. This enabled conglomerates to begin gaining control over the global food supply. Over the past 15 years or so, five giant biotech corporations – Monsanto, Syngenta, Bayer, Dow, and DuPont – have acquired over 200 other companies, which gave them worldwide dominance over seed control. Monsanto has become the world leader in the genetic engineering of seeds, with more than 674 biotechnology patents. No other company has that many patents on engineered seeds. Farmers who purchase Roundup Ready seeds from Monsanto must sign an agreement not to save the seed produced after each harvest for replanting. They cannot sell the seed either. They must purchase new seeds each year.
Saving seeds is considered patent infringement. Therefore, farmers who do GMO seeds must pay a license fee to re-sow them. This results in higher prices and reduced product options, as well as the increased need for pesticides and herbicides required by GM crops. The first harvest of GM or hybrid seed varieties, with optimal irrigation, fertilizer, and pesticides, yields may increase by 15 to 30 percent. However, the second generation of these seeds does not yield the same thing, instead, it develops into a multitude of plant forms. Replanting these seeds becomes impossible. Farmers must purchase new seeds each year. And, Monsanto has an essentially guaranteed revenue stream.
DNA barcoding issues
DNA barcoding identifies species using a short section of DNA from a specific gene. The idea is to have an individual sequence that uniquely identifies an organism to species. DNA barcoding involves sequencing a short fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene, “DNA barcodes,” from taxonomically unknown specimens and performing comparisons with a library of DNA barcodes of known taxonomy.
This technology has produced certain ethical concerns regarding its potential misuse. This genetic information can be used to restructure life through genetic modification of plants and species. According to the IBOL website their programs are: ‘BARCODE 500K, completed in 2015, was the foundation that established the sequencing facilities, analytical protocols, informatics platforms, and international collaboration needed to build the DNA barcode reference libraries. Building on this success, BIOSCAN launched in June 2019 to scan life and codify species interactions while expanding the reference library and demonstrating its utility. BIOSCAN will be the foundation for the Planetary Biodiversity Mission, a mission to save our living planet.’
Also see the Consortium for the Barcode of Life (CBOL) “is an international initiative devoted to developing DNA barcoding as a global standard for the identification of biological species. CBOL has more than 130 Member Organizations from more than 40 countries.”